The Second Amendment Foundation published research compiled by California attorney Kostas Moros, its director of legal research and education, concluding that licensed concealed carriers seldom face criminal convictions.

Conviction figures for permit holders were 0.09 percent in Minnesota and 0.11 percent in Virginia, while Michigan reached 0.24 percent once traffic offenses were included, remaining well below half a percent even with speeding counted. A two-page fact sheet among seven posted under Just the Facts on the foundation site also records three cases in which armed private citizens fatally stopped would-be mass attackers, one during a livestreamed church service.

Minnesota, Michigan, and Virginia still require permits for lawful carry, unlike Florida, which recently adopted permitless carry. Homicide totals have dropped sharply since the Bruen decision, with 2026 projected as the lowest in generations.